Abstract:
Sport corruption is a huge problem for the global sport industry (Kihl, Skinner & Engelberg, 2017). The purpose of this research is to examine the effects of different types (i.e., DUI, sex, doping, match fixing) of athlete scandals on attitude toward athlete and attitude toward corporate sponsor. A sample of 95 undergraduate students were randomly exposed to two of four different scandal scenarios. Data collected (n =92) and analyzed using repeated measures of ANOVAs. Theoretical and practical implications of this study revealed that there was a significant difference among the four groups.
Introduction
Solberg, Hanstad & Thoring (2010) states that for decades, athletes have been using enhancement substance to improve their performance to dominate on the world stage in various sports, and criminalization activities resulting in scandal is systematically embedded in the industry globally involving, doping, fraud and bribery, (Kihl, Skinner & Engelberg, 2017). Criminalize activities such as bribery, fraud and doping equate to sport corruption resulting in clean athletes victimized while others are elevated as a result of drug cheating, earning gold medals and huge endorsements stated Myers (2017). Corruption scandal in sport classified as the phenomenon (Kihl, Skinner & Engelberg, 2017) resulted in many huge scandals in recent times and has left the industry tainted.
2015 Russia throw the world of sport in a frenzy with the revelation of a massive corruption relating to an in-house doping system, “Russia doping scheme” resulting in top athletes being stripped of Olympic gold medals, explained Duval, (2017). Not long before that, one of the world greatest sport spectacle, the Olympics, would be hit. The London 2012 Olympics was hit with another scandal where the Badminton World Federation announced the disqualification of the eight female badminton players from China, South Korea and Indonesia for match-throwing (Hong-zhia Y & Weib, 2013). The cheating and betrayal left the many sport organizations and sponsors in a crisis. Some governing bodies are leading from the front by applying damage control and being accommodative and expressing sympathy, stated Bundy, Pfarrer, Short & Coombs (2016) to sport enthusiasts. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and International Olympic Committee (IOC) agreed that they failed to discover the Russian doping scheme to restrict and punish the preparators for these criminal practices, explain Duval (2017).
Companies continue to lose billion as a result of scandal in sport, according to Chien, Kelly & Weeks (2016), examined the effects of fans of scandalized team vs. fans of rival team, scandal severity, and the sponsor brand response to the scandal (sponsorship retention vs. termination), on consumer’s attitudes toward the implicated team, the scandal perpetrators, the sport, and sponsor brand, found evidence of differential reactions to scandal. The implications are not considered and there are stakeholders who refuse to adhere to the rules (Duval, 2017). The repercussions that are associated with scandal in sport impacts individuals’ organizations and country’s image and the industry is thrown into disrepute. Russia lost the right to host the 2016 World Race Walking Team Championships and the 2016 World Junior Championships, (Duval, 2017). Also, Russia’s Senator and triple-jumper Tatyana Lebedev was also stripped of multiple Olympic gold medals. Sponsorship have pulled because some brands refuse to associate their product with corruption. For example, in cycling, several sponsors have withdrawn their sponsorship due to the many doping scandals. In 2008, ARD and ZDF, two German public service broadcasters, decided to pull out of the Tour de France because of the many doping incidents, with more than 200 athletes involved in a doping network, resulted in nine leading cyclists prohibited from starting the 2006 Tour de France, (Solberg, Hanstad & Thoring (2010).
The purpose of this research is to examines the effects of different types of athlete scandals including (1) match-fixing, (2) driving under the influence (DUI), (3) Doping – use of performance enhancing drugs, and (4) sexual assault, on attitude toward athlete and attitude toward corporate sponsor. The significance of the study is influenced as a result of previous research did not investigate the effect of four major corruptions on sponsor brand evaluation.
This research adapting a quantitative methodology will aim to successfully collect the raw data through a questionnaire survey with a scale measurement system applied to previous study by, Solberg, Hanstad, & Thøring, (2010) and Kumar, Lee & Kim (2009). Also, the non-probability approach sampling technique will apply targeting a subset group of 80 or more university faculty staff and students affiliated with sport.
Literature Review
According to Chien, Kelly & Weeks (2016), in recent years, mass media have constantly reported on a multitude of scandals involving off-field misbehaviour by professional athletes, which draw the interest of the public. Some of these scandals have clear and direct implications for sporting outcomes, for example, doping by cyclist Lance Armstrong, match fixing by South African cricket captain Hansie Cronje, and to a lesser extent with no sporting outcomes, extramarital affairs of golfer Tiger Woods and the elevator assault case of the National Football League’s Ray Rice. Often times, consumers are incapable of reasoning clear judgment of morality and as a result engage in “moral coupling”, in other words make excuses for wrongdoers and consumers uses disengagement processes to continue support for immoral behaviour, (Lee & Kwak (2016). Doping in sport results in disgraceful scandals and continue to be a discussion and a problem for stakeholders in the sport industry. Corruption practices are very prevalent and is evolving into a lucrative business, (Masters, 2015), in modern sport and competition. The hypothesis, “Doping in sport: “What are sport participants and spectators perception and reaction to corruption scandal?” is an addition to the many research done on this topic, exploring to better understanding sport consumer (1) attitude toward athlete, (2) attitude towards brand, (3) sponsor product purchasing intentions and (4) team identification. In the study “sport scandal and sponsorship decisions: team identification matters” by Chien, Kelly & Weeks (2016), highlighted evidence of differential reactions to scandal stating that fans support their own team despite increased scandal severity, but negatively judge a rival team’s transgressions. Results suggest that where fans are concerned, sponsors may be better served to continue with a sponsorship following scandal, than to terminate, even for some forms of severe scandal.
“A global phenomenon” (Kihl, Skinner & Engelberg, 2017, p. 1), and this phenomenon at its highest level is plaguing the sport industry as far back as decades and in this new era. Russia’s doping scheme exposed in 2015 (Duval, 2017) is one of the biggest the industry has seen in this era which resulted in the entire country banned from the 2016 Olympics in Rio De Janeiro. Also, the Federation International Football Association’s (FIFA) took a big hit as one of the powerhouse organization in the industry, with a scandal in 2015 exposing top officials including the president accused of accepting bribes from potential host countries in the bidding of the 2018 and 2022 World Cup, from as far back as 2011 amounting in millions of dollars, (Giese, 2016). Extensive research intensely concentrates on sport corruption, with the aim to define the illegal practice explicitly.
This practice of criminalization in sport is systematically embedded in the industry globally involving fraud, bribery, doping and institutional, (Kihl, Skinner & Engelberg, 2017) and the wide spread of this phenomenon continues to be a problem for the industry, and the effort to eradicate this practice is becoming farfetched, because of its status and connections globally. Research results not so long ago shows that 95.64% of corruption cases analyzed, involves doping, with 76.58% occur in Europe and North America, (Gorse & Chadwick, 2011). How fans are connected to a sport property such as, athlete, team, event, etc. will determine their reaction to sport scandals, and Chien, Kelly & Weeks (2016) states that consumer response to sport scandal differs based on whether people identify with the team involved. Research result such as these are the problems many athletes from under-developed countries face, as many elite, rule-abiding athletes from these countries will never achieve life-changing success and wealth because the opportunities to win medals, prize money, and endorsements to triumphant athletes eludes them because of constant criminal activities that continue to rule sport, explain Myers (2017). Myers (2017), in an article asked the question, What about the clean athletes? This focuses attention on “refocusing international sport’s anti-doping approach unto equitable remedies for doping victims, particularly clean athletes from developing countries. According to Bundy, Pfarrer, Short & Coombs (2016), stakeholder’s high priority responsibility towards a crisis relating to an athletes, organization or country shares the misfortune and expresses remorse, or they can do choose to do the opposite with the blame-game or excuses.
Doing what seemed farfetched! Myers (2017) explain that Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt (from a developing country) created history in becoming the first and only athlete to have won or achieve the “triple-triple” in the sprints, meaning, winning three (3) gold medals each at three consecutive Olympics, despite the prominence of doping that is decaying the credibility of the sport trach and field. The sport industry is in a crisis and the stakeholders need to act fast. Hwang (2016) explained that people’s feelings towards the same situation is not always the same, and success to destroy corruption is not particularly great for most private organizations and policy makers in America, because some stakeholders in the industry inability to avoid criminal activities scandals, (Masters, 2015). On the other hand, there are participants and spectators that do care about doping in sport, and a vast majority especially among older people, has little or zero tolerance for the use of enhancement substance, explained Solberg, Hanstad & Thøring (2010).
Damaged control initiatives are in progress by some governing bodies like the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and International Olympic Committee (IOC), (Duval, 2017), who are implementing crisis management strategies by accepting responsibility and being proactive and accommodative (Bundy, Pfarrer, Short & Coombs, 2016). Both entities admitting they blunder with Russia’s cheating doping scheme (Duval, 2017). Corruption in sport goes way beyond athletes using enhancement substance to improve their performance to win gold medal and negotiate big endorsements, while clean athletes are victimized (Myers, 2017).
Deviance in sport have ruined lives resulting in the sport of cycling being damaged and may never recover, stated Woods (2016). Criminal behavior such as sport corruption is rampant in the industry and is a significant and controversial issue as a result money, because millions of dollars invested in the industry by organizations yearly, revealed Gorse & Chadwick (2010). Lance Armstrong fought cancer and dominated world cycling for over a decade in the 1990s and 2000s, and was considered one of America’s sport hero, but has tarnished the sport of cycling with team mates as a result of doping, explained Woods (2016). Other sports have also suffered misfortune with similar scandal in the cross-country skiing. During the 2001 Nordic World Ski Championship in Lahti, Finland, a total of six Finnish cross-country skiers were sanctioned for violations of the doping regulations, stated Laine (2006).
There is a shift to corporate in an effort to clean up the industry as sponsors are becoming cautious and are disassociating their brands from teams and athletes involve in criminal practices such as doping or corruption practices according to Solberg, Hanstad, & Thoring (2010). Before the 2006 Tour de France, the Guardia Civil military and civilian police force in Spain raided clinics and several apartments in Madrid and seized steroids, hormones, the endurance-boosting hormone EPO and nearly 100 bags of frozen blood and equipment for blood boosting, Solberg, Hanstad & Thoring (2010). Sport organizations are bodies conducting on-going research regarding the magnitude of sport corruption to understand it, what causes it, the consequences and reform initiative. These initiatives are through integrity conferences in an effort to rid sport of the stigma and shame it has attracted from this global phenomenon for many decades, with the hope of salvaging and preserve the image of sport globally, explain Kihl, Skinner & Engelberg, (2017).
According to Chien, Kelly & Weeks (2016), relating the scandal, some sport consumers Attitude toward the Sponsor, suggest that the sponsorship termination is unjustified when there is no real severity increased. Consumer’s need for uniqueness positively influences emotional value as an important factor that influences their purchasing intention explained Lee & Kim (2009). Corruption scandal does impact product purchasing where brands can either significantly decline or increase in sales, Giese (2016) explain that while such implications are real, sponsor should gear towards a business decision as a posed to a moral decision if the need arise. The author continues by explaining that Adidas was not impacted negatively by the Federation International Football Association (FIFA) scandal (in 2015), where top officials were accused of accepting bribes. Solberg, Hanstad & Thoring (2010) states that, there is a positive correlation between people’s perceptions toward corruptions scandal. Results show that in 2015, the year of FIFA’s scandal, ADIDAS association to the organization was not negatively impacted, and he powerhouse sport organization sales grew by 16.4% and overall profit for the same period was 18.1%, hence there were no need to disassociate their brand from the powerhouse sport industry, FIFA, revealed Giese (2016). Association to these successful powerhouse athletes and sport organization have become important to companies to improve their brands by luring consumers with the aim of increasing sales explained Gorse & Chadwick (2010). Aligning brands to successful sporting entities, especially athletes, is relatively an old compromise between the parties involve, and has evolved. The sport industry has grown significantly over decades, hence the appeal for sport team, and especially athletes worldwide craves a mutual association explicitly explain Gorse & Chadwick (2010).
Researchers have concluded that sport corruption is a global phenomenon that is not going away because of its affiliation and status in the sport industry, explain Kihl, Skinner & Engelberg, (2017), and with money being the front runner of the industry, results in morals being compromised, Giese (2016). Perception vary in respond to the similar instances and will result in different reaction from people, Hwang (2016) and while some stakeholders in the industry has taken a casual approach to sport corruption revealed Masters (2015), others have zero tolerance for such criminal behaviuor. There are so many dishonest activities involved in sport corruption such as fraud, doping and bribery, like a never healing sores and has impacted many athletes negatively. Russia who violated the rules of the governing bodies with doping scheme, resulted in the country’s athletes being banned from international competition, explained Duval (2017). Also, it has brought shame and disgrace through the stripping of country and athletes their gold medal. As the journey to clean up the sport continues, this study on doping, focusing on people’s reaction and perception to sport corruption scandal, influenced by previous research explored.
This systematic study will add to the many previous study with the aim to increase awareness of scandal in sport and the repercussion of such practice on the sport industry and country. While sport scandals can be limited to a single individual, when it involves team, the scandal can often implicate parties such as teammates, coaches, administrators, or other authorities stated Chien, Kelly & Weeks (2016). The direction of this study mainly stems from the shocking revelation at which corruption in sport exist on different levels revealed by prior studies such as, (1) Sport scandal and sponsorship decisions: Team dentification Matters, (Chien, Kelly & Weeks, 2016). (2) Do fans care about doping in sport? (Solberg, Hanstad, & Thoring, 2010), (3) criminalization through corruption in sport, from the playing field to the field of policy, (Masters, 2015) and (3) What is people’s perception towards sport corruption? (Hwang, 2016).
With the stigma that is associated to sport as a result of criminalized behaviour within the industry, Chien, Kelly & Weeks (2016) explicitly explained that consequences result in devastation for the careers of those directly involved, but also potentially for linked stakeholders including associated athletes, sports teams, sporting bodies, and sponsoring brands. Some countries and stakeholders equally with a vested interest, are not concerned enough with the serious consequences or implications, according to Masters (2015), and Duval, 2017. Understanding the complexity of the operations of the network of organization active in the fight against doping among other corruption scandal activities and their respective responsibilities in ensuring a doping-free environment, is reason to further explore and better understand sport corruption’s causes and its implications, Kihl, Skinner & Engelberg, (2017).
Methodology
Four scenarios were created to investigate the most common scandals in sport to understand sport consumers/fans attitude towards (a) athletes (b) brand, (c) purchase intention and (d) team identification. Harris (2013) explains, methodologies vary and choosing the most appropriate one that will allow depth of analysis of the research focus point can prove to be difficult, and social scientists should be careful in choosing methodology that will aim to provide accuracy in reporting the findings. Faqih (2013) explain that descriptive research is most common with a quantitative study gathering consumers buying pattern and consumer behavior study is largely subjected to quantitative approach. This study explains people perception and reaction to corruption in sport through an experimental design, that recruited a target group with involvement in sport whether by participation or spectator. Data was carefully gathered within the subset group, where a questionnaire survey with various measurement scales was administered to respondents to express their opinion.
Data Collection
To accomplish this task of conducting the study on reaction and perception of criminal activities in sport, this study models the methodology of a non-probability sampling technique utilizing scale measurement approach adopted from Faqih (2013). An assembled sampling targets a subset group of participants of undergraduate students associated with sport from a university in the east coast of the United States. This convenient sampling method from a relatively large university, was selected specifically from the sport faculty to facilitate the data collection process.
This quantitative study was conducted through an adopted design questionnaire, exposing 95 undergraduate students to an experiment survey, where two of four different scandal scenarios relating to consumers reactions towards, (1) match-fixing, (2) driving under the influence (DUI), (3) Doping – use of performance enhancing drugs, and (4) sexual assault. The sampling group is appropriate for this study and is better suited to facilitate the effort of a small group within a large community to eliminate any form of bias, explained Harris (2013).
Kumar, Lee & Kim (2009) explained that a scale instrument is suitable and is frequently used to capture quantitative data relating to consumer behaviour, and to measure purchase intention among consumers, a specific Likert scales is applied. The author also stated that the questionnaire can be structured to specific brands, which in this case explore the purchasing sponsor brand associate to the athlete and team involved in the scandal. Each item on the experiment questionnaire relating to sport consumer’s purchase intension, is rated utilizing multiple variations of 7-point Likert scale, as shown in table-2 (appendices).
Similarly, sport fans attitude was measured by multiple variations of 7-point Likert scale, evaluating the athlete and the brand in expressing their attitude towards both, as shown in table-2 (appendices), and finally, participants were also asked to respond by expressing their team identification, utilizing similar variations of multiple 7-point Likert scale, as shown in table-1 (appendices).
The subset group of voluntary responders targeted was given a brief and concise explanation of the research process and the objectives. Participants were asked to supply their reaction to a five-page typed document to complete the experiment with a series of concise questions relating to a scenario that involved top athletes involved in scandals. The experiment measured (1) attitude towards athlete, (2) attitude towards sponsor’s brand, (3) purchasing intention, and (4) team identification, was administered during participants classroom session, where respondents complete the questionnaire with answering all questions appropriately, before returning same.
Data Analysis
“Students are major consumer groups of casual apparel and are homogeneous in nature. The use of college students enhances theoretical predictions” (Kumar, Lee & Kim, 2009, p. 524). The small group of convenient respondents supplying the data was carefully collected within a large community (Harris, 2013. The raw data was manipulated utilizing One-way ANOVA to interpret and answer the variables, attitude towards athlete and brand, purchasing intention and team identification. This purpose to explicitly examine and understand sport consumer’s reaction relating to sport corruption or scandal, is similar to Hwang (2016) in the study, “Understanding sport corruption: An examination of people’s perceptions toward corruptions.”
Result
Participants were asked to respond to (1) team identification, (2) attitude towards athletes, (3) attitude towards brand, and (4) purchase intention, through an experiment survey. Descriptive statistic manipulating variables utilizing one-way ANOVA, performed test on several hypotheses, revealing significance among the four groups.
H1: Examine participants attitude towards Athlete
In terms of attitude towards athlete, there was a significant difference among the four groups F = 3.15, p = .026. Multiple caparisons tests indicate that participants have a more positive attitude towards other corruption scandal athletes, compared to athletes involved in sexual assault scandal (M = 3.67, SD = 1.72, p < .05). Test indicate that participants have a more favourable attitude towards athletes involve in match fixing scandal (M =4.42, SD = 1.42, p > .05) and drug scandal (M = 4.52, SD = 1.74, p > .05) than athletes involved in sexual assault scandal (M = 3.67, SD = 1.72, p < .05).
Figure-1:
H2: Examined participant attitude towards Brand
In terms of attitude towards brand, there was a significant difference among the four groups F = F = 1.89, p = .134. Multiple caparisons tests indicate that participants have a more positive attitude towards other corruption scandal associated to brand, compared to athletes involved in match fixing scandal (M =4.42, SD = 1.42, p > .05). Test indicate that participants have a more favourable attitude towards brand involve in DUI scandal (M =5.42, SD = 1.42, p > .05) and drug scandal (M = 5.01, SD = 1.74, p > .05) than athletes involved in match fixing scandal (M =4.42, SD = 1.42, p > .05).
Figure-2:
H3: Examined participant attitude towards Purchase Intention
Test performed indicated that there was no significant difference in the level of attitude towards purchase intention among the four groups, F = 1.89, p = .134 (verify this information).
Figure-3:
Team Identification by Treatment
In terms of attitude towards athlete, test performed indicated there was a significant difference among the three groups, F = 4.90, p = .003. Multiple caparisons tests indicate that participants with high team identification have positive attitude towards athletes involved in DUI and drug use scandal, compared to low team identification involved in sexual assault scandal (M = 3.67, SD = 1.72, p < .05).
Figure-4
In terms of attitude towards brand, test performed indicated there was a significant difference among the three groups F = 2.75, p = .044. Multiple caparisons tests indicate that participants with high team identification have an overwhelming positive attitude towards brand associated with DUI and drug use scandal athletes, compared to low team identification involved in match fixing scandal (M =4.42, SD = 1.42, p > .05).
Figure-5
Discussion
There has been a strong push from sporting bodies and organisations for greater public input into controlling corruption in sport. Sporting organisations and licenced gambling operators understand that competition requires a strong element of unpredictability in sport otherwise it loses its appeal to fans, sponsors and broadcasters. (Gorse & Chadwick, 2010). While many researchers in the sport industry focused on sport corruption, researchers continue to examine fans reaction such as; (1) Do fans care about doping in sport? (Solberg, Hanstad, & Thoring, 2010), (2) Criminalization through corruption in sport, from the playing field to the field of policy, (Masters, 2015) and (3) What is people’s perception towards sport corruption? (Hwang, 2016).
This experimental study examined the impact of corruption scandal to certain individual’s attitude towards sports teams and athletes relating to their behavioural intention. As the findings show, obviously the participants sampled in this study, attitude is more favorably towards athletes involved in some corruption scandals, compared to others.
– H1: Examined sport fans attitude towards athlete, finding in terms of attitude towards athlete, indicated there was a significant difference among the four groups. Participants have a significantly higher positive attitude towards athletes involve in some corruption scandals including DUI, drug use and match fixing, than those athletes involved in sexual assault. scandal.
– H2: Examined sport fans attitude towards brand, findings relating to attitude towards brand, indicated that there was significant difference among the four groups. Participants with higher attitude towards the brand, are more favourable to athletes involve in DUI and drug use scandal, than match fixing scandal athletes, being the least favourable towards the brand.
– H3: Examined Purchase Intention, findings indicate that participants have a higher purchase intention towards the brand, associated to DUI scandal, is more likely to purchase the product, compared to match fixing scandal athletes, being the least favourable towards purchasing the product.
– H4: Examined team identification, towards athletes, test performed indicated there was a significant difference among the three groups, and participants with high team identification have positive attitude towards athletes involved in DUI and drug use scandal, compared to low team identification involved in sexual assault scandal. Similarly, in terms of attitude towards brand, test performed indicated there was a significant difference among the three groups. Multiple caparisons tests indicate that participants with high team identification have an overwhelming positive attitude towards brand associated with DUI and drug use scandal athletes, compared to low team identification involved in match fixing scandal.
Implications and recommendation
From the fan’s perspective, sexual assault scandal can negatively impact the industry where the scandal can potentially decrease fans attitudes towards the athletes and brand. while match fixing scandal is not a threat to fans attitude towards athlete, it is the highest threat towards brand, as it is the least favourable scandal among fans relating to attitude towards brand. Also, relating to team identification, while highly identified fans do not care much about DUI (driving under the influence) and drug use scandal, they dislike match fixing scandal involving their favourite team, and this can be detriment, as it can decrease fan’s attitudes towards the team.
According to Carpenter, K. (2012), education relating to threat of corruption in sport, and the consequences to individuals and the sport, is an area not explored enough and has been very much neglected and behind the work of WADA, which in 2007 introduced education seminars and workshops. Also, the SportAccord Code includes an encouragement to provide education through the “International federations are encouraged to join with governments and responsible betting operators for the development of a common Education Programme regarding the potential risks related to sports corruption.
With the consequences that are linked to sport entity such as athletes, team or league if involved in sport scandal, organization should be more robust when choosing a sponsorship program, ensuring the protection of their brand from diminishing among fans. For example, disconnection clause should be included in the contractual agreement that will allow organization to disconnect from tainted sport entity that are negative factor to protect their brand. Also, organization should create brand for high identification fans and low identification fans.
Limitation and future research
This study provided a foundation for arguments relating to sport fans reaction and perception of the four major corruption scandal in sport. The main limitation that should be noted is, the study sample group was limited to undergraduate participants only reacting to sport scandals. More studies are needed to advanced fans behaviour in the context of sports. Future research should explore variables in the study testing a more diverse sample group affiliated with sport that includes graduate student, coaches, faculty staff, etc. to investigate on-the-field scandals/corruption.
References
Bundy, J., Pfarrer, M. D., Short, C. E., & Coombs, W. T. (2016). Crises and crisis management: Integration, interpretation, and research development. Journal of Management, 20(10), 1-32.
Chien, M. P., Kelly, S. J., & Weeks, C. S. (2016). Sport Scandal and Sponsorship Decisions: Team Identification Matters, Journal of Sport Management, 30(1), 490-505.
Duval, A. (2017). The russian doping scandal at the court of arbitration for sport: Lessons for the world anti-doping system. The International Sports Law Journal, 16(3-4), 177-197.
Faqih, K. M. (2013). Exploring the influence of perceived risk and internet self-efficacy on consumer online shopping intentions: Perspective of technology acceptance model. International Management Review, 9(1), 67-77.
Giese, S. B. (2016). Implications for corporate sponsors arising from scandals in sport: The case of Adidas and FIFA.
Gorse, S., & Chadwick, S. (2011). The prevalence of corruption in international sport. A Statistical Analysis. Coventry: Centre for the International Business of Sport. Coventry University Business School.
Gorse, S., & Chadwick, S. (2010). Conceptualising corruption in sport: Implications for sponsorship programmes. The European Business Review, 2010, 40-45.
Harris, S. R. (2013). How to critique journal article in the social science. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGA Publication.
Hwang, G. (2016). Understanding sport corruption: An examination of people’s perceptions toward corruptions. Psychology Research, 6(4), 250-257.
Kihl, L. A., Skinner, J., & Engelberg, T. (2017). Corruption in sport: Understanding the complexity of corruption. European Sport Management Quarterly, 17(1), 1-5.
Kumar, A., Lee, H. J., & Kim, Y. K. (2009). Indian consumers’ purchase intention toward a United States versus local brand. Journal of Business Research, 62(5), 521-527.
Laine, T. (2006). Shame on us: Shame, national identity and the Finish doping scandal. The Internal Journal of the History of porting, 23, 67-81.
Lee, J. S., Kwak, D. H., & Braunstein-Minkove, J. R. (2016). Coping with athlete endorsers’ immoral behaviour: Roles of athlete identification and moral emotions on moral reasoning strategies. Journal of Sport Management, 30, 176 -191.
Masters, A. (2015). Corruption in sport: From the playing field to the field of policy. Policy and Society, 34(2), 111-123.
Myers, S. R. (2017). What about the Clean Athletes: Refocusing International Sport’s Anti-Doping Approach onto Equitable Remedies for Doping’s Victims, Particularly Clean Athletes from Developing Countries. Temp. Int’l & Comp, 31, 565.
Solberg, H. A., Hanstad, D. V., & Thoring, T. A. (2010). Doping in elite sport-do the fans care? Public opinion on the consequences of doping scandals. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 11(3), 2-16.
Woods, R. (2016). Social issues in sports (3rd ed.) Champaign IL: Human Kinetics.
HP Sports Corner 